Video Game Violence and Violent Behavior (My Term Paper)

[Spanky The Dolphin]

Okay, this ties into this thread:
http://bbs.stardestroyer.net/viewtopic.php?t=11166

I decided to start a new thread due to the paper's size.

Video Game Violence and Violent Behavior

By [Spanky The Dolphin]

In these recent times, there has been a question as to whether violent content in video games has any connection to violent and aggressive behavior. The notion that viewing violent acts can effect behavior can be connected to conflict theory, which is defined in our text book as, "[emphasizing] the role of coercion and power, a person's or group's ability to exercise control over others, in producing social order" (Andersen & Taylor, 2001, p. 18 ). Violence allows for an individual to have power over others, and reshapes social order, if for only a temporary time.

Definition of Violent Content

In their research, Thompson, Haninger, and Yokota (2001) defined violent content as, "physical acts where the aggressor makes or attempts to make some physical contact with the intention of causing injury or death" (p. 1971) and, "intentional acts where the aggressor makes or attempts to make some physical contact that has the potential to inflict injury or harm" (p. 1971). Thompson et al. (2001) excluded from their definition of violence both unintentional acts, such as natural disasters and accidents; and expected physical acts by characters in sports games.

Depictions of Violent Content

The American Academy of Pediatrics' Committee on Public Education [CPE] (2001) suggests that prolonged exposure to media that portrays violence in a positive manner can lead to, "increased acceptance of violence as an appropriate means of solving problems and achieving one's goals" (p. 1223).

Strasberger and Donnerstein (1999) state that Bandura's social learning theory establishes that young children often imitate what they see on a television screen, especially when that behavior is performed by an attractive role model and goes unpunished. Incidents of justified violence, where a protagonist uses violence to defeat one or more antagonists, are cited as, "the single strongest positive reinforcer for young people" (Strasberger & Donnerstein, 1999, p131).

Most entertainment violence services to immediate visceral thrills, often ignoring any human cost, and video games rewarding the player for successful violent acts (CPE, 2001). Finally, violent media can inflate the perception of violence in the real world, resulting in the creation of the "mean world" syndrome (CPE, 2001). In this perspective, the world is a dangerous place, and being fearful of becoming a victim of violence is, "a strong motivation…to be more aggressive…" (CPE, 2001, p. 1224). There is also some evidence that performing violent actions in video games may fuel a child's aggression more than would just viewing a violent act (Cesarone, 1995).

Scope of Industry

A study conducted by the Media Analysis Laboratory at Simon Fraser University in Burnaby, British Columbia reported that the video game industry had 30% of the United States toy market in 1998, and earned $8.8 billion in the U.S. alone, more than the American film industry (cited in Van Horn, 1999).

Exposure to Media

Strasbeger and Donnerstein (1999) state that children see an estimated 10,000 acts of violence every year, and by the time they are 18-years-old, they will have seen an average of 200,000 violent acts (CPE, 2001).

Walsh and Gentile (2001) mention that children ages 2 to 17-years-old play an average of 2 hours of video games every day, and that more than half (65%) of all children ages 8 to 18-years-old have a television in their bedroom.

Sociological Perspective

With the ability to replicate the physical world virtually continuously improving, the division between the real world and the virtual one could be viewed as becoming smaller. This merging can be somewhat interpreted by combining Johan Huizinga's concept of "playspace" with Jean Baudrillard's concept of simulation, where one is able to get an interesting perspective on the separation of game violence and real violence (Schroeder, 1996). Playspace can be defined as, "The interface between medium and medium-user" (Schroeder, 1996, p 146). Huizinga's features of playspace dictate that play has no external goal, exists beyond the scope of ordinary life, operates with its own set of rules and within fixed boundries, and that reality can re-assert itself at any time (Schroeder, 1996). This is especially true for video games, where reality often interrupts the player, returning them to the real world. Baudrillard's theories stipulate that in the simulation, responses to actions, such as pain and death, no longer occur, and this kind of environment can leak into the real world. It is most prevalent in the descriptive language used when talking about games (Schroeder, 1996). A player will talk about "killing" a level's boss, or another will describe how their character "died."

Studies

In 2000 Jeanne B. Funk, along with Jill Hagen, Jackie Schimming, Wesley A. Bollock, Debra D. Buchman, and Melissa Myers conducted a study titled "Aggression and Psychopathology in Adolescents With a Preference for Violent Electronic Games." The study's topic was the relationship between playing violent games and the behavioral and emotional characteristics of adolescents (Funk et al., 2002).

The participants in the study were 32 adolescents (including 17 girls) who ranged in age from 11 to 15-years-old, with a mean age of 12.59 years. Two sites were chosen: a middle school in a Midwestern suburban area inhabited by a variety of socioeconomic groups; and an urban alternative middle school for children with school-based behavioral problems (Funk et al., 2002).

In the study participants completed a questionnaire that requested background information, the names for up to three favorite video games, and the time spent playing during an average week (Funk et al., 2002). Participants also identified the genre of each game according to six categories that were predetermined.

For the purpose of analysis, cell size was maintained by identifying the participants as belonging to, "either a 'High preference for violent games' or a 'Low preference for violent games' group based on the proportion of games that they categorized into one of the three violence categories" (Funk et al., 2002, p138). Less than half to zero of their favorite games were identified as violent by adolescents in the "Low" preference group, while those in the "High" preference group identified at least half of their favorite games as violent (Funk et al., 2002).

The study also included the Problem Items of the Youth Self-Report by Achenbach (cited in Funk et al., 2002). The YSR measures perceptions of a respondent's own behavior in eight different problematic areas: Withdrawn, Somatic Complaints, Anxious/Depressed, Social Problems, Thought Problems, Attention Problems, Delinquent Behavior, and Aggressive Behavior (Funk et al., 2002). Three summary scales (Total Problems, Internalizing Behaviors, and Externalizing Behaviors) are also calculated. Total Problems is a summary score that "excludes two health problem questions and 16 items keyed for social desirability" (Funk et al., 2002, p. 138). Internalizing Behaviors is a sum of raw scores for the Withdrawn, Somatic Complaints, and Anxious/Depressed scales; but with the deletion of one repeated statement. Finally, Externalizing Behaviors is a sum of raw scores for the Delinquent and Aggressive Behavior subscales (Funk et al., 2002).

Adolescents completed the YSR by answering 112 statements that concerned them presently or within the last 6 months. They answered by selecting 0 ("not true,") 1 ("somewhat or sometimes true,") or 2 ("very true or often true") (Funk et al., 2002). The raw scores are, "transformed to a normalized…score based on percentiles of the distribution of scores obtained by the normative sample (Achenbach), with higher scores indicating more problems" (Funk et al., 2002, pp. 138-139).

A study conducted by David A. Walsh and Douglas A. Gentile titled "A Validity Test of Movie, Television, and Video-Game Ratings" was conducted in 2000. The study's objective was, "To test the validity of the current movie-, television-, and video game-rating systems" (Walsh & Gentile, 2001, p. 1302).

Using advertisements in a local newspaper, 55 adults were recruited for the study. The requirements were that participants had to be parents or grandparents (either married or single,) or were professionals in child development (Walsh & Gentile, 2001). Thirty-five participants had an education in child development or, "had worked professionally with children in some capacity" (Walsh & Gentile, 2001, p. 1303).
Forty-eight of the participants were parents or grandparents, while seven were professionals. Participants had an average of 1.9 children, with a standard deviation of 1.2. Their ages ranged from 22 to 66, with an average age of 40 and a standard deviation of 10.0. Thirteen male and 42 were female, and all came from a wide range of social, economical, and ethnic backgrounds. For participating in the study, an hourly rate was paid. In the study, participants were referred to as "parents" for simplification (Walsh & Gentile, 2001).

The parents in the study used the KidScore media evaluation system. The KidScore system is an evaluation tool for media products such as television programs, films, and video games. Ten aspects are used during evaluations. Walsh and Gentile (2001) list the aspects as:
1) the amount of violent content; 2) the portrayal of violence; 3) the extent to which the shows may cause fear in children; 4) the amount of illegal or harmful behavior displayed… 5) the amount of offensive language; 6) the amount of nudity; 7) the amount of sexual content; 8 ) the appropriateness of the show, film, or game for children ages 3 to 7 years; 9) the appropriateness of the show, film, or game for children ages 8-12; and 10) the appropriateness of the show, film, or game for children ages 13-17 (p. 1304).
A 6-point Likert scale is used to rate each aspect.

Two hundred seventy-six films, 253 television programs, and 166 video games released, between 1997 and 1999 were rated in the study. They were selected due to their popularity, the chance that a child might see or use them, or because children were the primary marketing target (Walsh & Gentile, 2001). Every parent in the study had 5 hours of initial training for the KidScore rating form, and any additional training that was needed was administered.

Panels of at least five parents evaluated each program, film, and game. In each panel, parents evaluated media products independently. Due to the diversity and size of the pool of trained participants, the risk of products being evaluated by "homogenous panels" (Walsh & Gentile, 2001, p. 1304), such as a group with an internal agenda, was reduced (Walsh & Gentile, 2001).

To allow for a diversity of opinions, but eliminating idiosyncratic ones, mean ratings for the parents on each panel were created. This ensured that inter-rater reliability was high and that all parents used the KidScore system and viewed content in the media in similar manners (Walsh & Gentile, 2001).
The mean ratings for each product were then reduced from a 6-point scale to a 3-point scale. Walsh and Gentile (2001) present the three points as:

Green light, indicating that the product is rated by the parent raters as appropriate for children based on the content area being rated; Yellow light, indicating that the raters believed that parents should use caution when allowing their children to watch the program, see the movie, or play the game; and Red light, indicating that the raters believed that the product is not recommended for children based on the content area being rated (p. 1304).
In 1999, Michael Rich and Miriam Bar-on conducted a study called "Child Health in the Information Age: Media Education of Pediatricians." Its objective was to determine what trainees in pediatric residency programs are being taught concerning media and its influence on children and adolescent mental and physical health (Rich & Bar-on, 2001). Participants in the study were the directors who headed the 209 accredited pediatric residency programs located in the United States (Rich & Bar-on, 2001).

A 17-item survey was designed that included questions about, "children's exposure to media, including television, movies, popular music, computer/video games, and the Internet, the effects of this exposure on specific health risks, and associations between program characteristics and media education in the residency curriculum" (Rich & Bar-on, 2001, p. 156).
The Media Analysis Laboratory at Simon Fraser University in Burnaby, British Columbia did a study titled "Video Game Culture: Leisure and Play Preferences of B.C. Teens" (cited in Van Horn, 1999). The1998 study was in the form of a survey of British Columbian teenagers who ranged in age from 11 to 18-years-old, with 80% ranging between 13 and 17-years-old (cited in Van Horn, 1999). The study concerned the leisure activities and video game playing preferences of teenagers in British Columbia (cited in Van Horn, 1999).

Results

YSR scores in the 2000 Funk et al. study were examined for each participant according to their group and gender. An elevation for at least one of the subscales in the clinically significant range occurred in slightly less than half of the samples, and with both schools being represented (Funk et al., 2002).

Boys in the High-preference group had the most representation, with clinically significant scores on 8 of 11 subscales. High-preference boys and girls both had the most representation on the Total Problems subscale (Funk et al., 2002).

The gender differences concerning game preference was consistent with research findings in the past, with boys having a, "consistently higher preference for violent games then girls" (Funk et al., 2002, p. 140); about 30% of the girls were in the High-preference group, while it was 60% of the boys (Funk et al., 2002).

Children with higher preference for violent games tended to have more clinically significant elevations across YSR subscales than those who had a low preference (Funk et al., 2002).
Six of the 8 children on the Total Problems subscale were in the High-preference group (three boys and three girls) (Funk et al., 2002). The relationships between externalizing behaviors and high-preference for violent games, although expected, were not found (Funk et al., 2002).

While the research did identify an association between a preference for violent games and more self-reported problem emotions and behaviors, the prediction that individuals, "with a preference for violent games would report more externalizing problems was not supported" (Funk et al., 2002, p. 140). The conductors of the study found this to be puzzling, due to the theoretical belief that those with a high preference to violent games would exhibit more externalizing problems (Funk et al., 2002). It is possible that the participants were lacking insight to their behaviors, or that they may have been reluctant to be so candid during the YSR (Funk et al., 2002).

Funk et al. concluded their study by suggesting that individuals with a preference for violent games may have a higher exposure to all forms of media violence. The emotions associated with violence and violent acts might be disconnected while playing violent video games (Funk et al., 2002). While unproven at the current time, these explanations are consistent with a desensitization model, and present findings should be confirmed with a larger sample (Funk et al., 2002).

The industry ratings were compared to the ratings that parents using the KidScore system in the Walsh and Gentile study gave to each media product to test the validity of the media ratings systems (Walsh & Gentile, 2001). Fortunately, it seems that there was a trend toward agreement between the ratings assigned by the parent and those of the industry. However, a few disagreements can be seen when a comparison is made between the parent and industry ratings for different age groups (Walsh & Gentile, 2001).

There is one point of agreement between parents and industrial ratings that goes across all ratings systems that is observed. Parents completely agree when an industry classifies a product as being unsuitable for children (Walsh & Gentile, 2001).

It is beyond this point of agreement, however, that industry ratings seem too lenient when compared with how parents rate the same products, with specific areas of concern.
While parents agreed with the appropriateness of most games rated E for 3- to 7-year-olds (67%), less than one half of the T-rated games (43 %) were evaluated as being appropriate for 13- to 17-year-olds (Walsh & Gentile, 2001).

The study concluded by stating that the ratings systems for movies, TV programs, and games that are currently in use are less than adequate at filling the role of protecting public health, while preserving artistic and economic freedom. While there are some possible shortcomings in each ratings system, their use does provide some information to parents concerning content (Walsh & Gentile, 2001). Unfortunately, Walsh and Gentile (2001) state that there are a number of reviews showing that parents exert little control over the types of media that are used by their children, and, "90% of teenagers say that their parents never check the video game ratings before allowing them to rent or buy computer or video games" (p. 1305).

Of the 209 programs Rich and Bar-on sent surveys, 204 (97.6%) responded (Rich & Bar-on, 2001). Formal education on one or more types of media was offered by 58 programs (28.4%). When teaching about specific health problems, 60 programs (29.4%) discussed the influences of media. In 96 programs (47.1%,) residents were encouraged to discuss media use with patients and parents. Media literacy was taught in 13 programs (6.4%) as an intervention. The inclusion of media in residency curricula was significantly associated with media training that was received by the director of the program.

The study concluded by stating that less than one-third of all American pediatric residency programs teach about the effects of media exposure despite there being an increase in the awareness of the influence media has on a child's health (Rich & Bar-on, 2001). Rich and Bar-on (2001) suggest that the teaching of media exposure in pediatric residency programs could be developed if more directors or designated faculties were trained in the subject. They say that this would be a resource-effective method of, "improving health for children growing up in a media-saturated environment" (Rich & Bar-on, 2001, p. 156).

The study conducted by the Media Analysis Laboratory reported that 80% of British Columbian teenagers said they "played [games] at least occasionally, and the average amount of time playing for the sample was 5 hours per week" (cited in Van Horn, 1999, p. 173). Playing video games was a pastime more popular with boys than girls, saying they played games for twice as much time as girls did (6 hours per week versus 3 hours or less per week, respectively (cited in Van Horn, 1999).

The differences existing between "heavy players" and "light players" were significant. Heavy players spent over 7 hours a week playing video games, while light players played for only 3 hours or less per week (cited in Van Horn, 1999). "Displacement" was an interesting variable identified by the researchers, which they defined as, "the giving up of various activities in order to play games" (cited in Van Horn, 1999, p. 173). Twenty-one percent of respondents said that homework and chores were activities they were willing to give up to play games (cited in Van Horn, 1999). Displacement appeared to be a more frequent issue for heavy players than with light players, as they reported putting off homework and chores (37%), as well as family activities (18%) more often (cited in Van Horn, 1999).

In an interesting revelation, 39% of the participants reported that rules regarding television viewing were established, while only 22% reported that their households had rules concerning video games. Few of the teenagers in the study reported, "getting into trouble for breaking household rules concerning video gaming" (cited in Van Horn, 1999, p174).

The study concludes stating that parents hardly ever played their children's games with them, and that fewer rules were set concerning video games than television. It is not clear whether this is due to a belief that kids' games are educational, educational, lack any kind of problems, or is just beyond their control; but it is time for further exploration when this reluctance to get involved concerns heavy players who ignore homework and household chores (cited in Van Horn, 1999).

Solutions

Walsh and Gentile (2001) state that according to their research, the current use of multiple ratings systems for the different types of media are, "too confusing and even contradictory for parents to use effectively" (p. 1306). They suggest that a universal ratings system that goes across all types of media should be implemented. However, they also stress that parents should use their own judgment when deciding what is appropriate for their children, and simply use the ratings as a general guideline (Walsh & Gentile, 2001).

The American Academy of Pediatrics' Committee on Public Education (1999) says that more media education is needed to combat the problems of violence in the media. Media education allows for someone to look beyond the face value and actually interpret what its purpose is (CPE, 1999). They advise that more pediatricians should be trained in media education, and ask parents about a child's media history during examinations and visits (CPE, 1999).

Conclusion

While there are problems with video game violence, there seems to be no connection between the violence itself and violent behavior (Funk et al., 2002). More research in this area should be done, with larger samples. There are also problems in the actual ratings system used for video games (Walsh & Gentile, 2001), which should have some kind of revision to make them less vague on whether certain games are age appropriate for children in their group. Finally, media education in the pediatric world is not currently as widespread as it should be (Rich & Bar-on, 2001), and in the upcoming years should be put into greater use, with pediatricians also educating parents of the effects of video games and other media (CPE, 1999).

It currently seems that future research should be done with a conflict theory perspective in mind. Video game violence generally goes against social norms, generating conflict. While normally this conflict does not cause any kind of violent behavior, it is possible that in some people who possess mental illnesses, which lack the ability to separate elements of fantasy from reality, could be prompted to lash out violently towards others.

Bibliography

American Academy of Pediatrics' Committee on Public Education. (1999, August). Media Education. Pediatrics, 104, 341-343.

American Academy of Pediatrics' Committee on Public Education. (2001, November). Media Violence. Pediatrics, 108, 1222-1226.

Andersen, Margaret L. & Taylor, Howard F. (2001). Sociology: The Essentials. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.

Cesarone, Bernard. (1995, January/February). Video Games and Children. Emergency Librarian, 22(3), 31-32.

Funk, Jeanne B., Hagan, Jill, Schimming, Jackie, Bollock, Wesley A., Buchman, Debra D. & Myers, Melissa. (2002). Aggression and Psychopathology in Adolescents With a Preference for Violent Electronic Games. Aggressive Behavior, 28, 134-144.

Rich, Michael & Bar-on, Miriam. (2001, January). Child Health in the Information Age: Media Education of Pediatricians. Pediatrics, 107, 156-162.

Schroeder, Randy. (1996, Winter). Playspace Invaders: Huizinga, Baudrillard, and Video Game Violence. Journal of Popular Culture, 30(3), 143-154.

Strasburger, Victor C. & Donnerstein, Edward. (1999, January). Children, Adolescents, and the Media: Issues and Solutions. Pediatrics, 103, 129-139.

Thompson, Kimberly M., Haninger, Kevin & Yotoka, Fumie. (2001, October 24/31). Violence in Children's Films and Video Games [Letters]. Journal of the American Medical Association, 286(16), 1971-1972.

Van Horn, Royal, (1999, October). Violence and Video Games. Phi Delta Kappan, 81(2), 173-174.

Walsh, David A. & Gentile, Douglas A. (2001, June). A Validity Test of Movie, Television, and Video-Game Ratings. Pediatrics, 107, 1302-1308.

[Xisiqomelir]

OMG, don't post the whole thing here! teh rampant plagiarists of the internet will cannibalize and devour the choice bits, much like EVA-01 assimilating the S engine from Zeruel



Side note: Good show, looks like solid work *Big Thumbs Up*

[Utsanomiko]

He tried that in the other thread, but Yahoo doesn't like remote access. So it was decided to post it here.

[Spanky The Dolphin]

What, no comments?

You people suck.

[IRG CommandoJoe]

Ok I have virtually no time at all to turn on my thinking cap and read all of that. Can you just sum up whether or not you agree that there is a significant influence on violence from video games? Because I already know that everyone here is in favor of keeping video games the way they are, if not making them even more violent. lol

[Spanky The Dolphin]

My conclusion was that there is no connection between violence in video games and violent behavior in adolecents.

But you should really read the whole thing.

[IRG CommandoJoe]

(Kicks himself after reading the Conclusion.)
Ok that was just a really dumbass request I made just now.

Also I've always felt that way without all of that research. lol I hope you didn't so that you actually accomplished a new correct train of thought all by yourself. LOL

[Spanky The Dolphin]

No, I pretty much wrote it to prove that I was right all along.

[Montcalm]

My conclusion was that there is no connection between violence in video games and violent behavior in adolecents.

But you should really read the whole thing.

What i hate is when you prove that tv,movies and video games do not make a kid violent some jerk come and say it does.

[IRG CommandoJoe]

No, I pretty much wrote it to prove that I was right all along.

But it's not nearly the sense of accomplishment you would feel if....hmm...(scratches head)...aw, fuck it. Yeah, good for you!

My conclusion was that there is no connection between violence in video games and violent behavior in adolecents.

But you should really read the whole thing.

What i hate is when you prove that tv,movies and video games do not make a kid violent some jerk come and say it does.

Like Joe Lieberman.

[Spanky The Dolphin]

No, I pretty much wrote it to prove that I was right all along.

But it's not nearly the sense of accomplishment you would feel if....hmm...(scratches head)...aw, fuck it. Yeah, good for you!

Damn right I felt accomplished!! I got an A on the damn thing.

[IRG CommandoJoe]

Aha...also a good thing to know professors are at least as smart as you.

[Mr Bean]

My conculsion is that I will read it tommrow

[DPDarkPrimus]

Top-notch work there, Spanky. You get a gold star.