As it is not very probably that it was a coincidence that the cloak failed just in the moment the ship passed through the asteroid, we have to assume, that the passing through the asteroid - as it is a very peculiar asteroid - caused the failure.
Coincidences like this happen all the time in Star Trek. How often is there a planetary disaster and by coincidence, the only ship in the area happens to be the one with the ability to fix it? How often do two tiny starships meet in the middle of empty space by random chance? In this case, there is nothing about the asteroid that is confirmed to be different. They do not state that it has unusual magnetic and gravitational properties, and they do not even suggest the idea that it was the asteroid itself that caused the cloak to fail. In fact, they suggest quite the opposite. They clearly state that the hardware needed to support the cloak blew up before the ship entered the asteroid.
Here's an alternate idea. The Pegasus was actually pretty close to the asteroid to begin with. They were probably testing the cloak by flying through some of the asteroids when the shit hit the fan. After the explosion, the gravity of the asteroid gradually pulled the Pegasus inside and kept it there until the cloak finally failed. This makes the most sense, rather than assuming the asteroid was something special without any hard evidence to back it up. It's also more probable than having a ship outside a solar system drift straight for that tiny asteroid and have the cloak fail at that exact moment.
Don't you think that the other bridge officers would notice it, if Data spouts such scientific absurdities?
They're pretty dumb too. There are countless incidents of Data using blatantly incorrect scientific terms, making incorrect calculations and assumptions, and sometimes just very bad ideas. They have complete faith in his ability to be a perfect calculator that they don't ever bother to fact-check him.
We only know that it was peculiar.
No, we don't. Where do they say that it was? We only have Data saying that it "might". Which, even if we trust him fully, is just probably a prudent safety suggestion.
Maybe they talked off-screen about it.
Then it never happened and cannot be used as evidence in this discussion.